The Curious Case of Fifths: The Use of Fifth's in Joseph Haydn's "Quinten", first movement

Link to "Quinten" Quartet with score accompaniment

    

     In the first movement of “Quinten”, composer Joseph Haydn uses descending fifths as a basis for the main theme of the piece.  This use of fifths is a recurring theme throughout the movement and is used in many ways melodically and harmonically, maintaining a similar tone and atmosphere that is unique within the use of a sonata form.  Through the uses of several tonal regions, exchanges between voices, and melodic fragmentation in the development and recapitulation, Haydn creates thematic continuity throughout the entire “Allegro” movement.

            Before going into an in-depth analysis of the piece, it is important to understand the background and history of the composition.  Haydn’s six String Quartets (Op.76) were written sometime between 1796 and 1797 and were dedicated to the Count of Hungary, Joseph Georg von Erdödy.  (Ayres 297).  This was the last group of string quartets written by Haydn during his life, and is representative of Haydn’s yearning for experimentation with form and melodies that during the latter part of his career.  At the time this was written Haydn was still working for Prince Esterhazy, and was also in the midst of working on one of his most famous pieces, The Creation. (Ayres 300).

            The second string quartet in Op. 76, known as “Quinten”, is representative of Haydn’s most ambitious chamber works.  The quartet colloquially received the name “Fifths” or the German “Quinten” due to the descending fifth intervals that are present throughout the main theme of the piece.  The first movement of the quartet, marked “Allegro” is a brisk and dark sonata, containing all of the conventional forms of a first-movement classical string quartet.  This movement, however, is unique in that the main falling fifths theme is present throughout almost the entire piece, with only slight variations on the main theme.  The falling fifths motif is presented in almost all sections of the form, and is quoted in all voices.  By doing this, Haydn creates a constant thematic continuity that drives the composition forward until the end of the movement.

            The use of fifths is used in every section of the movement.  The piece starts off with the main theme being presented in the first violin, in the home key of D minor.  The falling fifths theme is then heard again in the main melody in the first violin at measure twenty, but this time in the relative major key of F Major.  The theme is then not heard again until a few measures into the development section, in which the first violin is heard playing the falling fifths in G minor.  The development section travels through several tonal regions, with the theme being heard in almost every tonal region.  The development briefly goes back to the home key of D minor at measure sixty-seven, with the original falling fifths theme being heard in the first violin in its original key.  After traveling back to D minor, the development then modulates between C major and its relative A minor, with fifths being heavily used and repeated in order to build tension that leads to the end of the development.  In the recapitulation, the descending fifths theme is heard and repeated similarly to the exposition, with the theme being heard in the home key of D minor and subordinate key of F major.

            The fifths motif is not only used in every section of the piece in the main melody of the first violin, but is also used in every other part.  From the first violin to the cello, every instrument quotes the falling fifths theme throughout the entire movement.  In measure thirteen, for example, when the subordinate key of F major is introduced, descending fifths are played in the viola part for the next two measures.  The falling fifths theme is then passed to the second violin in measure fifteen for two measures, and then to the cello part in measure seventeen.  The motif is then played again by the second violin in measure thirty-six, and then again by the cello in measure fourty-seven.  Falling fifths are then not played by another voice until several measures into the development section at measure sixty-four.  At this point, the fifth are passed between voices every measure, starting with the second violin, then cello, then viola, and then back to the cello at measure sixty-seven.  At measure seventy-two, all four voices play descending fifths in half-notes, with the second violin playing a beat off from the rest of the quartet, creating a sort of canon or fugue-like section.  The descending fifths motif is then not repeated in the other voices until measure 128, when it is quoted in the second violin, and then in the cello from measures 132 to 135. 

            In order to create melodic and harmonic interest throughout the movement, the use of falling fifths is sometimes obscured or inverted by Haydn in some way.  Haydn does this by fragmenting the main melody heard in the first violin at the beginning of the piece and using it in all sorts of ways, either by placing it in other voices or in different keys.  Except for the repeat at measure fifty-six, the main theme in the beginning is not repeated in its entirety until the recapitulation at measure ninety-nine.  There are times were the descending melody is heard, but is in different intervals, such as fourths, thirds or sixths.  In measure thirty-seven for example, the second violin continues descending intervals in half notes, but plays a descending minor sixth, from E-flat to G.  This change of intervals usually occurs in order to fit the harmonic structure and avoid using non-chord tones.  Going back to measure thirty-seven, an E-flat dominant seventh chord occurs harmonically between the viola, second violin, and first violin.  This means that in order to function as a dominant seventh chord, the second violin has to go to G instead of A-flat.  There are also instances in which the fifths are ascending instead of descending.  In measure fifty-seven, the cello plays ascending fifths instead of descending fifths in order to provide an ascending melodic direction that leads to the first violin’s entrance with the melody at measure fifty-nine.

            Haydn also creates consistent melodic and harmonic interest by bending the rules of conventional forms and structures that were popular during the classical era.  Although the movement is clearly structured as a sonata form, with an apparent exposition, development, and recapitulation, the structures of the sections themselves are unorthodox and travel to unusual melodic phrasings and tonal regions.  In the exposition, for example, the piece not only travels to the subordinate key of F Major, but then also modulates directly into the parallel F Minor in measure thirty-two.  This is used to not only return to a minor key that is similar in sound to the opening theme, but is also used to maintain harmonic drive and melodic interest.  The reason for this is because the entire movement, as well as the entire string quartet, revolves around the simple interval of a descending perfect fifth.  The interval itself is one of the most basic in all of Western music, so in order to prevent the piece from becoming drab and repetitive, Haydn creates a variety of modulations and irregular phrases in order maintain an interest to the listener.

            According to music theorist William Caplan, the main theme of this first movement can be interpreted as a “nonconventional theme type”.  (Caplan 288). A Nonconventional theme is one that “deviates from the norm” and does not fit the prototypical characteristics of a sentence, period, or other form of small phrase.  Kaplan even states that this is common among first-movement forms of a piece, which fits the characteristic of the first movement of the “Quinten”.  The first phrase heard in the movement is irregular itself, composed of ten measures. It can be argued that measures eleven and twelve are also a part of the first phrase, but the strong half-cadence at measure ten and rhythmic unity between all four instruments suggest the end of the phrase, with a two-measure sub-phrase that cadences to the home key of D minor. Other than the repeat of the exposition and very beginning of the recapitulation, the first phrase is never repeated in its entirety.  The only thing that does repeat is the fifths, which is the main focus of the piece.  There are hints throughout the movement that the original theme from the beginning will return, either in the home key or a subordinate key, but Haydn teases the listener by avoiding the return of the first melody by using the fifths motif as a basis and then uses the fifths to create other melodic content.

            The recapitulation of this movement is interesting in that it tends to use the fifths motif far less than the rest of the piece.  Other than the repeat of the original theme in the home key of D minor at the beginning of the recapitulation at measure ninety-nine, the fifths motif is rarely used and is replaced by sixteenth-note patterns in the first violin, with more rhythmic complexity in the other instruments.  This was probably done by Haydn in order to signal that the end of the movement is approaching, pushing the composition to its end by creating more rhythmic drive in all four parts.  There is a small quote of the fifths motif at the very end in the closing material by the first violin, and then the first movement reaches its final cadence in its home key of D minor.

            Many scholars and theorists have argued that the “Quinten” is composed of one theme, that theme being the descending fifths.  Theorist Roger Parker, for example, calls the composition as “Haydn at his most austere and monothematic”. (Parker).  It can be argued, however, that the first movement is multi-thematic, with the fifths being used as a basis to present other themes throughout the piece.  Although these themes presented may contain the fifths motif, the themes themselves are different enough harmonically and melodically to be considered a different theme altogether.  In the developmental section at measure fifty-seven, for example, the fifths motif is constantly repeated and reintroduced throughout the section and in almost every instrument, but the constant modulations of key changes and inversions of the fifths motif create several transitional melodies that are unique within themselves, as well as melodies that are used as a point of direction for the eventual cadence that leads to the recapitulation at measure ninety-nine.

            Overall, the first movement of Haydn’s “Quinten” string quartet is one of the most unique and complex of his chamber works.  Although on the surface the piece may seem fairly simple with the main theme composed of descending fifth intervals, the movement travels to some fairly interesting tonal regions and phrases throughout, and is one of the more fascinating pieces by Joseph Haydn.

Bibliography

         Ayres, Reginald. "The Harvest: Opus 76." In Joseph Haydn and The String Quartet, 297-301. New York, NY: Schirmer Books, 1974.

         Caplin, William E. "Exposition (I): Main Theme." In Analyzing Classical Form, 288. 1st ed. Vol. 1. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2013.

         Keller, Hans. "Op. 76, No. 2, in D Minor." In The Great Haydn Quartets: Their Interpretation, 212-215. New York, NY: G. Braziller, 1986.

         Parker, Roger. "Haydn: Quartet Op. 76 No. 2." Lecture, Badke Quartet Lecture, Museum of London, London, UK, October 2, 2010.

Analyzing the famous chord progression in John Coltrane's "Giant Steps"

Link to track: "Giant Steps" with solo transcription

                                     

The origins of what today is known as “Coltrane changes” starts amid the middle of Coltrane’s career in the mid-1950s.  Coltrane studied Nicolas Slonimsky’s book, the Thesaurus of Scales and Melodic Patterns, which provided a foundation for the development of the “Coltrane changes”. 

In short, the concept of Coltrane changes can be described as a musical cycle.  This cycle is created by taking any key and creating a chord progression by splitting the key into specific interval patterns.  (Adler). There are seven musical cycles that can be created with the twelve-tone system of western music, ranging from cycles of unisons or octaves to major sevenths or minor seconds.  The most common form of cyclical progression is the circle fifths/fourths progression, in which the progression goes through the circle of fifths to create progressions that are most familiar in jazz, such as the II-V-I cadence or progression.

In Coltrane’s composition “Giant Steps”, the tune is composed entirely of the major thirds cycle.  The melody of the piece is fairly straightforward, using tones from each chord with occasional passing tones.  These passing tones are kept in order to keep the thirds pattern equal throughout the melody.  It is important to note that both the melody and harmony are in rhythmic unison, with the chordal accompaniment moving and changing at the same time as the melody. Although an original composition, the chord progression is based off of the examples of ditone progressions in Slominsky’s Melodic Patterns.

Although the composition can technically be considered in E-flat major, the average listener may not be able to tell that there is a tonal center at all.  This is because of the way the cyclical progression functions, in that each tonal center is cycled through and repeated, with pre-dominant and dominant chords used to tonicize each tonal center.  Similar to an augmented chord (in which each note of the chord is harmonically equidistant), because each tonal center is equidistant from one another, it is difficult to determine the actual root, other than determine the lowest interval.  That is why even though Coltrane cadences to the E-flat major chord the most in the piece (with 3 phrases ending on E-flat, including the first and last accented whole-note cadence), every time an accented cadence occurs on a whole note, the cadence still sounds unresolved.  It is because of the cycle that creates a constant harmonic dissonance, giving the entire structure of the composition a feeling of never-ending energy and movement.

The use of the cyclical thirds progression pioneered by John Coltrane in the jazz idiom has become one of the most unique and important innovations in jazz theory and history.  By creating this system of cyclical patterns, Coltrane changed the language of jazz and broke the mold of ordinary jazz harmonic progressions in jazz history.  (Wernick 23).  The use of “Coltrane changes” is still used by jazz composers today, and has become one of the most influential jazz compositional techniques of the last half-century.

Lead Sheet to “Giant Steps”

Bibliography

Adler, Dan. "The 'Giant Steps' Progression and Cycle Diagrams." Jazz Improv Magazine.  Vol. 3, No. 3. 

Arau, Javier. "Augmented Scale Theory." Javier Arau. Accessed November 11, 2015. http://www.javierarau.com/augmented-scale-theory/.

Bair, Jeff. "CYCLIC PATTERNS IN JOHN COLTRANE’S MELODIC VOCABULARY AS INFLUENCED BY NICOLAS SLONIMSKY’S THESAURUS OF SCALES AND MELODIC PATTERNS: AN ANALYSIS OF SELECTED IMPROVISATIONS." Dissertation Prepared For the Degree of DOCTOR OF MUSICAL ARTS, 2003. Accessed October 14, 2015. http://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc4348/m2/1/high_res_d/dissertation.pdf

Cole, Bill. "9." In John Coltrane. New York, NY: Schirmer Books, 1976.

Fraim, John. Spirit Catcher: The Life and Art of John Coltrane. West Liberty, Ohio: GreatHouse, 1996.

MacDonald, Earl. "Ever Up and Onward: Coltrane Changes." Ever Up and Onward: Coltrane Changes. May 24, 2012. Accessed October 13, 2015. http://everupandonward.blogspot.com/2012/05/coltrane-changes.html.

Ratliff, Ben. "Theory-mad." In Coltrane: The Story of a Sound, 42-68. New York, NY: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2007.

Scott, Rich. "Circle Progressions." Money Chords. 2004. Accessed November 11, 2015. http://www.angelfire.com/fl4/moneychords/circleprogressions.html.

Simpkins, C.O. "Giant Steps." In Coltrane: A Biography. Baltimore, MD: Black Classic Press, 1975.

Slonimsky, Nicolas. "Ditone Progression." In Thesaurus of Scales and Melodic Patterns, 27. New York, NY: Scribner's, 1947.

The Real Book. Sixth ed. Vol. One. Milwaukee, WI: Hal Leonard, 2004. 157 & 418.

Wernick, Forrest. 2009. "John Coltrane's Gateway to Musical Freedom: Harmonic Superimposition Techniques in Selected Modal Improvisations between 1960--1965." Order No. 1465748, The William Paterson University of New Jersey. http://search.proquest.com/docview/305071890?accountid=6444.

Yamaguchi, Masaya. 2002. "A Creative Approach to Mutli-Tonic Changes: Beyond Coltrane's Harmonic Formula." Annual Review of Jazz Studies: 147-167. http://search.proquest.com/docview/1371274?accountid=6444.

The Sounds of Science: The use of sampling in The Beastie Boys' pivotal track from their landmark album, Paul's Boutique

       

Link to track: "The Sounds of Science"

           Throughout what is known today as the “Golden Age” of hip-hop (late 1980s to mid-1990s), the use of musical sampling and remixing was incredibly popular, becoming an art form in and of itself.  No other album exemplifies this art form more than the 1989 album, Paul’s Boutique, by The Beastie Boys.  Produced by prolific DJ’s the Dust Brothers, the wide array of samples from different genres of music, use of audio and sound bites from various forms of pop culture, and its effect on the musical form and genre of each track, makes this album one of the most important albums in hip-hop history.  Through the use of a wide variety of motifs and riffs from the entire pantheon of popular music, the Beastie Boys’ create a collage of sounds and melodies, playing with the conventional hip-hop forms that were popular at the time as well as the genre of hip-hop itself. The sixth track of the album, “The Sounds of Science”, exemplifies the use of a multitude of samples from several different genres, and by breaking down the track into three sections and dissecting each sample used, one can observe the relationship between the samples and how the synthesis of said samples create a rich and vibrant genre-bending hip-hop track.

            The origins of Paul’s Boutique started in 1988 after the group’s successful tour following their debut album Licensed to Ill.  After cutting ties with their original producer Rick Rubin, the Beastie Boys looked to create a new album with more musical depth and character than the playful “frat-rap” persona of their previous album. (Segal). The group decided to recruit the hip-hop production duo The Dust Brothers to collaborate on the creation of a more experimental hip-hop album, composed almost entirely out of song samples.  The Dust Brothers (composed of producers Michael Simpson and John King) had extensive experience with hip-hop production, and were innovators of their time, creating collages of beats and hooks from a wide spectrum of music genres.  The Brothers’ vast musical knowledge, as well as the Beastie Boy’s enthusiasm and knowledge of popular music and culture, created one of the most dense and intricate albums in the history of popular music, using songs from funk, rock, jazz, country, and everything in between.

            The album Paul’s Boutique consists of fifteen tracks, most of which transition between another.  The use of transitions were heavily influenced by The Beatles, who used transitions between and within songs in several of their albums, such as Sgt. Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band and Abbey Road.  Many have compared Boutique to Sgt. Pepper, claiming it to be the Sgt. Pepper of hip-hop. (LeRoy & Relic 35). Each track on the album has its own style and personality, with the structure of each track revolving around samples of various genres and artists.  Many of the tracks, in fact, were originally created by The Dust Brothers as instrumental tracks to be used for an album by the Brothers. (Segal).  The sixth track on the album, “The Sounds of Science”, contains a collage of several songs by The Beatles, specifically songs from Sgt. Pepper and Abbey Road, as well as samples from several other sources.  The track transitions between the track, “High Plains Drifter”, and “3-Minute Rule”.  The lyrics by the Beastie Boys contain many abstract references to a variety of memes of popular culture, as well as important figures in scientific history, and making comparisons of their rhymes and flow as “dropping science”. “The Sounds of Science” consists of some of the most intricate and complex uses of sampling on the album, making it one of the more significant tracks on Paul’s Boutique.

            In “The Sounds of Science”, the track itself is composed of three main sections.  The first section of the track, what we’ll call the A section, consists mainly of the instrumental track from The Beatles’ “When I’m 64”, with a four-bar introduction using a sample of the plane-landing sound effect from “Back in the U.S.S.R.”, also by The Beatles.  The clarinet and bass guitar giving the section a half-time swing feel, giving this section a stiff, “nerdy” quality, reflecting the theme and lyrics of the track.  The tempo of the sample of “When I’m 64” is slowed down noticeably from the original recording, from a tempo of 138 beats per minute to 120.  There are also several other samples and sounds used during this section, most noticeable the “cow-in-a-can” sound effect that is repeated every two bars.  Although similar in sound to a “cow-in-a-can”, The Dust Brothers have stated that the effect does not come from this instrument, but in fact comes from an unspecified voice, distorted and edited to sound as such. (LeRoy).  Also in the background is a two-bar guitar and bass hook that comes in 16 bars into the track.  This is a sample from Isaac Hayes’s “Walk from Regio’s”, off of the soundtrack from the 1971 film Shaft. In order to fit within the “When I’m 64” sample, this sample is also slowed down in tempo significantly.  The overall form of this section is simple and strophic, with different verses being passed between each member of the Beastie Boys. At the end of the A section, the “chorus” is presented, with all three members reciting the title of the track.  Although it can be considered the chorus, it is important to note that this chorus is never repeated or reintroduced throughout the rest of the track.  This A section has a very unorthodox and “square” feel in comparison to the characteristics of conventional hip-hop, which reflects the Boys’ own personalities, as well as their willingness to constantly bend the genre throughout each track of Boutique.    After the chorus, the A section ends and then goes into the transition or “break” section.

            The transition section, or what we will call the “break” section, provides a stark contrast from the first section of the track, with an absence of tempo and sparsely used samples throughout.  This section is used to transition between the two halves of the track, from the geeky-sounding swing of the first half to the more straightforward hip-hop sound of the second half.  The transition starts when “science” chorus is repeated, and the crowd sound effect from The Beatles album Sgt. Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band is added in the background of the track.  The chorus stops, then the lyrics “rope-a-dope” and “the newest in new” are recited, with DJ hits in between.  These DJ hits contain horn hits from the James Brown track “Get Up, Get Into it, Get Involved”. (Benjamin).  The phrase “right up to your face and dis you” is used, which is a sample of the song “My Philosophy” by Boogie Down Productions.  A few more DJ hits are heard, with the last verse of the transition, then going in to the B section, with all three members rapping the opening verse.

            The song then starts the B section, or what we will call the “hip-hop” section.  I have chosen to call it the “hip-hop” section because the section has a much more straightforward hip-hop feel than the beginning of the track, with straight eighths and a more conventional drum beat as opposed to the shuffle swing feel of the first half.  Dust Brother Mike Simpson states the more conventional sound of the second half of “Science”, saying “if you didn’t get all the other wacky stuff we were doing, you might get this one”.  (LeRoy 87).  The instrumental is composed mainly of the drum beat from the reprise of the title track on Sgt. Pepper, as well as the guitar hook from The Beatles’ track “The End”.  The crowd sound effect from the transition section continues in the background.  All three members rap the first verse of the section, then exchange verses between one another until MCA finishes the song with the last verse.  The lyrics of this section are much more abstract then the previous section, filled with numerous references to popular culture and straying away slightly from the science-themed lyrics.  It is important to note that this section also has no chorus, with the instrumental track almost acting as an ostinato to be used under the continuous recitation of verses.  After a solo verse from Beastie Boys member MCA, there is a two-measure DJ scratch solo, with the instrumental returning afterwards.  Towards the end of the track, other samples are added to the instrumental, with parts of the guitar drum solos being used from “The End”.  The phrase “I do not sniff the coke, I only smoke the sensamilla” is also heard towards the end of the track, which is a sample from Pato Banton’s reggae hit, “Don’t Sniff Coke”.  The lyrics of the last few verses return to the science theme, with the instrumental track going silent and MCA rapping the final verse.  The album then directly goes into the next track, “3-Minute Rule”.  

All in all, the track “The Sounds of Science” is one of the more intricate songs on Paul’s Boutique and is good representation of the use of sampling in hip-hop and its effects on conventional popular song forms. The use of samples from different genres, for example, create a palette of varying sounds and timbres that is unique to the hip-hop genre.  In “Science” we hear classic rock licks from The Beatles on Abbey Road, jazz influenced swing from Sgt. Pepper, R&B and funk grooves from the Shaft soundtrack, and lyrics sampled from reggae music.  Because of the wide array of sounds being presented, as well as the constant barrage of references and abstract wordplay in the Boys’ lyrics, the listener is constantly being given new and exciting material to experience.  Because of this, conventional song forms of popular music become unnecessary, as repeating material, such as choruses and refrains, prevent more material from being presented.  “The Sounds of Science” is the best example of this, where each section has its own style and very little if any lyrical or melodic content are repeated.  There are, of course, songs on Paul’s Boutique that do have repeating material, such as “Johnny Ryall” and “Egg Man”, with more conventional song forms and the use of verses and choruses, but even still, the repeats of choruses tend to be less frequent then most popular music, with the chorus usually only repeating once. 

“The Sounds of Science” is also unique in that it uses multiple movements to connect similar ideas, as well as provide variety in the ideas being presented in the lyrics.  The “square” feel of the first have is used to reflect the “nerdy” lyrics, then contrasts and even enforces ideas with the louder, more conventional hip-hop feel of the second half.  Although multi-movement works within tracks are not new to popular music, with artists such as Queen and Radiohead using multi-movement forms in their songs “Bohemian Rhapsody” and “Paranoid Android” respectively, this track introduces this idea to the hip-hop genre. (Adams).

            The album Paul’s Boutique’s use of sampling creates a collage of American popular culture that is unique and stands out within the hip-hop genre, as well as the genre of popular music.  The Dust Brothers and their collaboration with members of the Beastie Boys created a slice of Americana, using sounds, noises, rhymes, and beats that are immensely complex and push the limits of what can be done with musical sampling.  By using over 100 samples from music across every genre, the Beastie Boys and The Dust Brothers created one of the most intricate and influential albums in the history of popular music.

Bibliography

Adams, Jacob. "Dropping Names, Cutting Tapes: Beastie Boys – B-Boy Bouillabaisse." PopMatters. March 26, 2012. Accessed October 14, 2015. http://www.popmatters.com/post/156211-dropping-names-cutting-tapes-beastie-boys-b-boy-bouillabaisse/.

Benjamin, Brad. "Paul's Boutique Samples and References List." Beastie Boys’ Paul’s Boutique Samples and References List. May 9, 2012. Accessed October 13, 2015. http://www.paulsboutique.info/.

LeRoy, Dan, and Peter Relic. For Whom the Cowbell Tolls: 25 Years of Paul's Boutique. London: 6623 Press, 2014.

LeRoy, Dan. Beastie Boys' Paul's Boutique. London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2006.

Partridge, Kenneth. "Beastie Boys' 'Paul's Boutique' at 25: Classic Track-by-Track Album Review." Billboard. July 25, 2014. Accessed October 14, 2015. http://www.billboard.com/articles/review/album-review/6187764/beastie-boys-pauls-boutique-album-review-classic-track-by-track.

Segal, Corinne. "KEXP Breaks down Beastie Boys’ ‘Paul’s Boutique’ All Day Today." PBS. July 24, 2015. Accessed October 14, 2015. http://www.pbs.org/newshour/art/kexp-break-beastie-boys-pauls-boutique-day-today/.

Sewell, Amanda. 2014. "Paul's Boutique and Fear of a Black Planet: Digital Sampling and Musical Style in Hip Hop." Journal of the Society for American Music 8 (1): 28-48. http://search.proquest.com/docview/1666974086?accountid=6444.

A Brief (But Not Really) History of Music in Film

Image courtesy of the San Francisco Symphony

Over the past 100 years, the use of music in film has greatly influenced the advancement of music in popular culture, as well as the roles of composers and orchestras.  By showcasing orchestral and instrumental music to the public, creating a synthesis of the visual and musical arts, and creating an entire industry of music for film, this genre has changed the way we think of music and its role in our everyday lives.  From the live-accompaniment piano music of the silent film era to the powerful orchestral scores of today, music has shaped the history and influence of film, as well as popular culture.

The beginnings of music in film starts with the beginnings of film itself, as well as its rise in popularity. During the birth and evolution of the early films of the late 19th and early 20th Centuries, the rise and evolution of recorded music was also occurring.  Because of this, filmmakers had access to recordings of already existing music that they could use in order to add more drama and depth to their films.  In 1915, for example, D.W. Griffith's film The Birth of a Nation used recordings of several romantic and classical orchestral music, such as Rossini's William Tell Overture and Wagner's The Ring Cycle.  Another way music was provided for films was by live accompaniment.  During the rise of the silent film, many theaters would provide music for films by having live accompaniment on piano, organ, violin, or a small chamber ensemble.  This was used not only to add more depth and entertainment to the films, but also to mask the noise of the early film projectors.  (Chihara). At the turn of the 20th Century, other forms of entertainment, such as broadway musicals and vaudeville, were on the rise in popularity.  These other forms of entertainment also heavily influenced the shape and direction of film music, leading to musicals and broadway songs being used for the screen as well.

One major turning point in the history of film music was the rise of the talking motion picture, or "talkie".  In 1927, The Jazz Singer, starring entertainer Al Jolson, was one of the first popular films to also use sound.  The use of music and song delighted audiences and led to the rise in popularity of motion pictures with sound, and by 1930, almost all Hollywood films being produced were "talkies".  Because of this, the demand for film music, especially original film music, was at the highest it has been in its history.  This also led to the end of live accompaniment being used in theaters.  At the height of the Silent Era in the 1920’s, almost all theaters were using some form of live accompaniment, creating a business and steady job for many musicians across the country, with some larger theaters even hiring entire orchestras.  Because of the use of recorded music, the film music industry now shifted to the recording studio, hiring musicians, conductors, and composers.  Now, instead of the music being used as a sort of background to set the general mood of the film, music was being written for what was directly happening on screen.  One of the first filmmakers to do this was Charlie Chaplin, who composed the music for the majority of his films, such as City Lights (1931).  (Scaruffi).

Many of the composers that were hired in Hollywood were European immigrants, leaving their home countries from the political turmoil during the 1930s in search of more promising careers.  These composers took with them their European compositional ideas with them, being influenced by romantic composers such as Wagner, Tchaikovsky, and Brahms.  One of these composers, Max Steiner, changed the influence and relationship between a film and its music with his score for King Kong (1933).  (Drannon).  Influenced by Wagner’s concept of “leitmotifs”, where each theme represents a specific plot point or character, Steiner used this technique by writing specific melodies and themes for the main characters in the film.  This revolutionized the concept of film music, from being simply a part of the background to directly influencing or emphasizing the moods, concepts, or themes represented in the story of the film.  This idea continued to influence film composers and still does to this day.  This expansion and rise of film music from around 1933 to 1956 is known today as the "Golden Age" of film music, where the score to a film was becoming almost as important as the film itself.

Through the 1940s, the film score became a crucial and significant part of filmmaking, with large symphony orchestras being used, as well as other ensembles, such as the choral ensemble, piano, or arrangement of strings.  Because of the influence of World War II, many composers were influenced by writing nationalistic themes, such as Max Steiner’s score for Casablanca (1942) quoting the French national anthem.  (Paterson).  Other composers who were known outside the world of film music, such as Dmitri Shostakovich and Sergei Prokofiev, would write film scores.  During the 1930s and 40s, there was a trend of composers who wrote outside of film becoming more and more attracted to writing film scores.  Prokofiev’s score for Alexander Nevsky, for example, was an enormous work, using similar techniques that Max Steiner used in his scores, while also incorporating Russian national elements and themes.  This serge of classical composers infiltrating film music led to even more complexity in the composition of the film score itself, as well as the significance it had in influencing the film it was based on.

Other musical concepts during the 1940s and 50s were also introduced.  The influence of expressionism, originally conceptualized by Arnold Schoenberg, had a great deal of influence in the scores of films that dealt with heavy emotions, such as horror films or dramas.  Composers like Bernard Hermann would use this concept as well as other avant-garde musical concepts in his scores for his films that he worked on with famous director Alfred Hitchcock, such as Vertigo, North by Northwest, and probably his most famous score, Psycho.  The influence of jazz also came into play, with the film A Streetcar Named Desire as one of the first films to use the jazz style in its score, instead of the usual use of a full orchestra.  (Quint).

Throughout the 1950s and 60s, the orchestrations of scores for movies were becoming more varied, using unusual instruments, styles, and techniques.  The use of jazz became more and more popular, with films like Anatomy of a Murder using original compositions for the film by Duke Ellington and his Orchestra.  The use of songs also became important, with composer Henry Mancini becoming an important pioneer in the popularity of the original song from a film.  Writing original songs like Moon River from Breakfast at Tiffany's and The Pink Panther theme, these songs became incredibly popular.  This use of an original song for a film became another important aspect of a film, not only in the genre of the film musical, but elsewhere.  The 1970s and 80s pioneered the use of a film soundtrack, which used already existing popular songs and used them to emphasize certain moods and ideas in the story of a film.  The best example of this would be the use of Simple Mind's "Don't You (Forget About Me)" in the film The Breakfast Club, where the content of the song's lyrics reflects the plot of the film. 

In the film music today, there are a wide variety of ways that music is used in film.  There are many outlets for orchestrating a film score now, from the classic use of a full orchestra to the simple use of a guitar or synthesizer.  In today's music, we also see a direct connection between a film's composer and its director.  The best example of this would be the great composer John Williams and his scores for the movies of Steven Spielberg.  For the past 40 years, both the director and the composer have worked together on their films to get the most emotion and excitement out of each other, with Spielberg using Williams' orchestrations and compositions to their full effect.  Films like Jaws, Jurassic Park, and the Indiana Jones trilogy have had some of the most memorable film scores because of the cooperation between its director and composer.  (Twyman).  This relationship has directly affected filmmakers in working with specific composers, such as Christopher Nolan working with Hans Zimmer and Tim Burton working with Danny Elfman. 

In film today, music is such an integral part of a film that there are many times that it goes unnoticed.  The use of music, or lack thereof, can heighten or dull the mood, emphasize a plot point, or even scare the viewer.   In today's world of film composition, composers are being sought after in almost every background of music.  No longer are classically trained composers writing film scores, with composers from jazz or rock backgrounds adding to the emotions of a film.  Trent Reznor, for example, has made the transition from his rock group Nine Inch Nails to composing scores for several recent films, such as The Social Network and Gone Girl.  Film music can also come from every genre of music, from the avant-garde to the popular "Top 40" hits currently on the radio.  (Kahn). To quote director Matthew Vaughn, "the music is half of the film".  (Vaughn).

There are some interesting psychological aspects of film music that filmgoers have come to understand over the past 100 years or so.  The music of a film can directly change the mood of the event that is taking place on screen.  (Fischoff).  Non-diegetic sound, or sound that takes place outside the world of the events taking place on screen, is what we understand as film music.  This music cannot be heard by the characters in the movie, but is used to heighten or emphasize the feelings of the characters or events taking place, directly being heard by and affecting the viewer.  Diegetic music can also be used to affect the mood or tone of a film, which is music that can be heard by the characters and takes place within the world of the film.  In Alfred Hitchcock's film Rear Window, for example, no external film score is used, and all of the music and sounds that is heard are sounds that are coming from the world of the film.  This lack of extra music that many viewers are used to creates a heightened sense of tension and anxiety throughout the entire film, without any non-diegetic music to show the viewer what to expect and when to expect it.  Furthermore, the lack of music can also affect the mood of a specific scene in a film.  In another Alfred Hitchcock movie, Psycho, the famous scene in the shower starts with no extra music, then immediately starts the famous screeching of strings once the main character of the movie is murdered.  This use of lack of music to crescendo of non-diegetic music throws off the viewer completely, heightening the sense of terror and shock that the main character feels during that scene. 

For the past century, the use of film music has become a world of its own.  Nowadays, music can be found to heighten the mood of almost every single aspect of media, from to video games, television shows, and even commercials.  Film music has created an entire expectation of film, producing an incalculable amount of music that can be enjoyable and listenable on its own.  In many instances, there are songs that we hear on the radio that we can immediately associate with as being from a specific movie.  The history of film music has greatly affected the history and influence of all music in the past 100 years, creating moods and musical concepts that may not exist otherwise, creating a world of new musical ideas.

Bibliography

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Drannon, Andrew. "The Evolution of Film Music." The Evolution of Film Music. August 17, 1999. Accessed February 24, 2015. http://scoresheet.tripod.com/paper.html.

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Twyman, Whitney. "Film Appreciation - A Brief History of Music in Films." Film Appreciation - A Brief History of Music in Films. Accessed February 24, 2015. http://www.twyman-whitney.com/film/essentials/music-history.html.
 

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